Network Protocols: Difference between revisions

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Network Protocols

Network protocols are a set of rules and conventions that dictate how data is transmitted across networks. They establish the standards for communication between different devices, ensuring that information can be exchanged reliably and efficiently. Protocols encompass various functions, including data formatting, error handling, and data integrity checks, making them crucial for successful communication in both local and wide-area networks.

Introduction

The growing reliance on computer networks for communication, data exchange, and resource sharing has necessitated the development and adoption of network protocols. Without these protocols, devices would struggle to communicate effectively, leading to confusion and inefficiencies. Network protocols define the methods and routines for data transmission, enabling interoperability among heterogeneous systems—ranging from small embedded devices to large enterprise servers.

Protocols exist at various layers of the network stack, each with its purpose and functionality. Commonly, these protocols adhere to the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite, which are two foundational frameworks that guide the design and implementation of networking technologies.

History

The evolution of network protocols is closely tied to the development of computer networking itself. Early network protocols can be traced back to the 1960s, with the establishment of ARPANET, a precursor to the modern Internet. The need for standardized communication across diverse computing systems led to the inception of protocols like NCP (Network Control Protocol).

As networking technology progressed, the introduction of the TCP/IP model in the 1970s played a pivotal role in the development of modern network communications. TCP/IP was designed to facilitate robust communication across large networks, addressing reliability and error detection through its layered approach. The proliferation of personal computers and the subsequent expansion of local area networks (LANs) in the 1980s further emphasized the necessity of standardized protocols.

In the 1990s and 2000s, the advent of the World Wide Web spurred the growth of additional protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol), each serving unique purposes within the ecosystem of network communication.

Design and Architecture

Network protocols are designed based on specific objectives and are categorized according to the OSI model, which consists of seven layers:

1. **Physical Layer**: This layer involves the transmission of raw binary data over physical media. Protocols at this layer define the electrical, optical, and radio signals, as well as the hardware (cables, switches) required for data transfer.

2. **Data Link Layer**: This layer ensures reliable transmission of data frames between two directly connected nodes. Protocols like Ethernet and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) operate here, managing error detection and correction at this local level.

3. **Network Layer**: Responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through intermediate routers, the Internet Protocol (IP) is vital at this level. IP is divided into versions—IPv4 and IPv6—catering to addressing and routing requirements across networks.

4. **Transport Layer**: This layer guarantees end-to-end communication, managing flow control, segmentation, and reliability. TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are prominent transport layer protocols, where TCP provides reliable delivery and error checking, while UDP allows faster but non-reliable transmission.

5. **Session Layer**: This layer manages sessions or connections between network applications. Protocols in this layer, such as NetBIOS and RPC (Remote Procedure Call), facilitate communication and data exchange among services.

6. **Presentation Layer**: This layer translates data between the application layer and the network format. Protocol specifications here include mechanisms for data encoding, encryption, and compression.

7. **Application Layer**: The topmost layer of the OSI model, it encompasses various user interface protocols that facilitate specific network services. Notable protocols include HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS (Domain Name System), and TELNET.

These layers work collaboratively to ensure effective communication and are essential for the efficient operation of modern Internet and intranet systems.

Usage and Implementation

Network protocols are implemented in various fields, serving numerous applications across distinct environments. Some key areas where protocols are widely used include:

1. **Internet Communication**: The TCP/IP suite remains the backbone of the Internet, with protocols like IP and TCP facilitating global communication. Applications on this platform—such as web browsing, email, and file transfer—rely on corresponding application-layer protocols.

2. **Local Area Networking**: Within local networks, protocols such as Ethernet define local traffic rules and media access controls, ensuring efficient data flow among connected devices. Wireless protocols like Wi-Fi utilize radio signals for data transmission and network access.

3. **Telecommunications**: In telecommunication networks, signaling protocols (e.g., SS7) and transport protocols (e.g., RTP for real-time applications) enable the management of voice and video communications over both digital and analog channels.

4. **Cloud Computing**: As businesses increasingly migrate to cloud services, protocols like REST (Representational State Transfer) and SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) enable efficient web services and API (Application Programming Interface) communication.

5. **IoT (Internet of Things)**: The proliferation of IoT devices has led to the development and application of lightweight protocols designed for constrained environments, such as MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol).

The implementation of these protocols involves using software and hardware components designed to adhere to established standards, ensuring seamless interoperability for end-users and devices.

Real-world Examples or Comparisons

Several real-world networking protocols exemplify the diverse applications and functionalities provided by network protocols:

1. **HTTP vs. HTTPS**: While both protocols facilitate data transfer for web pages, HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) leverages encryption (via SSL/TLS) to secure data transfer between clients and servers, mitigating risks associated with data interception and tampering.

2. **TCP vs. UDP**: TCP is used for applications requiring assured delivery and order (e.g., web browsing, file transfer), while UDP is preferred for applications where speed is critical, such as online gaming and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), where occasional data loss is tolerable.

3. **FTP vs. SFTP**: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is widely used for transferring files over a network but lacks inherent security features. In contrast, SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) operates over a secure channel, ensuring both authentication and encryption for file transfers.

4. **IPv4 vs. IPv6**: IPv4, the fourth version of the Internet Protocol, uses a 32-bit addressing scheme, limiting the number of available IP addresses. IPv6, a successor, offers a vastly expanded 128-bit addressing scheme, accommodating the growing number of devices connected to the Internet.

These examples illustrate specific use cases, highlighting the distinctions and applications of different network protocols.

Criticism and Controversies

Despite their importance, network protocols are not without criticism. Some controversies and concerns include:

1. **Security Vulnerabilities**: Many legacy protocols, such as FTP and HTTP, are criticized for their lack of encryption and inadequate authentication mechanisms. This vulnerability can lead to data breaches, unwarranted surveillance, and other security issues.

2. **Obsolescence and Transition**: The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 has met with resistance due to the complexities and costs involved in upgrading existing infrastructure. This delay has resulted in continued reliance on deprecated technologies, potentially exacerbating the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.

3. **Vendor Lock-In**: Certain proprietary protocols or implementations can lead to vendor lock-in, where organizations become dependent on specific technologies or systems, reducing flexibility and increasing costs in the long run.

4. **Interoperability Challenges**: The existence of numerous protocols can lead to compatibility issues, making it difficult for devices from different manufacturers or vendors to work together seamlessly. This challenge emphasizes the need for ongoing collaboration and standardization efforts in the networking industry.

Addressing these criticisms is essential for the future development and implementation of robust, secure, and efficient network protocols.

Influence and Impact

Network protocols have significantly shaped the landscape of modern communication by enabling interoperability between diverse systems and facilitating the seamless exchange of information across the globe. Their influence is multifaceted:

1. **Global Connectivity**: Network protocols form the foundation of the Internet, allowing billions of devices to connect and communicate. This connectivity has transformed communication, commerce, entertainment, and education, leading to the rise of the digital economy.

2. **Innovation**: As new protocols emerge to address evolving technological needs, they have driven innovation in various fields, including streaming services, cloud computing, and IoT. Protocol development often spurs advancements in underlying technologies and applications.

3. **Standardization**: Organizations like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) play crucial roles in setting networking standards. These organizations foster collaboration among stakeholders, ensuring that protocols evolve to meet emerging needs while maintaining compatibility.

4. **Policy and Regulation**: The proliferation of network protocols has prompted discussions around policy and regulation, particularly concerning data privacy, internet neutralities, and security practices. Coordinated efforts among governments, private sectors, and civil society are essential to safeguard public interest in a complex digital landscape.

The far-reaching influence of network protocols underscores their role as foundational elements that enable and sustain digital communication and interaction among users worldwide.

References

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Network Protocols =
+== Network Protocols ==
+Network protocols are a set of rules and conventions that dictate how data is transmitted across networks. They establish the standards for communication between different devices, ensuring that information can be exchanged reliably and efficiently. Protocols encompass various functions, including data formatting, error handling, and data integrity checks, making them crucial for successful communication in both local and wide-area networks.
 == Introduction ==
-Network protocols are the established standards that govern the exchange of data between devices over a network. These protocols define rules and conventions for communication, ensuring that devices can understand and process information accurately. Network protocols are crucial for relaying network performance, security, and reliability, and they enable interoperability between diverse systems and platforms. As modern networking continues to evolve, the significance of robust network protocols has come to the forefront, facilitating seamless connectivity in a rapidly digitalizing world.
+The growing reliance on computer networks for communication, data exchange, and resource sharing has necessitated the development and adoption of network protocols. Without these protocols, devices would struggle to communicate effectively, leading to confusion and inefficiencies. Network protocols define the methods and routines for data transmission, enabling interoperability among heterogeneous systems—ranging from small embedded devices to large enterprise servers.
+Protocols exist at various layers of the network stack, each with its purpose and functionality. Commonly, these protocols adhere to the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite, which are two foundational frameworks that guide the design and implementation of networking technologies.
 == History ==
-=== Early Developments ===
+The evolution of network protocols is closely tied to the development of computer networking itself. Early network protocols can be traced back to the 1960s, with the establishment of ARPANET, a precursor to the modern Internet. The need for standardized communication across diverse computing systems led to the inception of protocols like NCP (Network Control Protocol).
-The genesis of network protocols can be traced back to the early days of computer networking in the 1960s. The dawn of packet-switching technology introduced mechanisms for transferring data across interconnected systems. Early protocols, such as the Interface Message Processor (IMP) protocol developed for ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), laid the groundwork for future standards. The IMP protocol was among the inaugural efforts to allow multiple computers to communicate over a network using a common method of data framing.
-=== The TCP/IP Protocol Suite ===
+As networking technology progressed, the introduction of the TCP/IP model in the 1970s played a pivotal role in the development of modern network communications. TCP/IP was designed to facilitate robust communication across large networks, addressing reliability and error detection through its layered approach. The proliferation of personal computers and the subsequent expansion of local area networks (LANs) in the 1980s further emphasized the necessity of standardized protocols.
-The major turning point came in 1974 when Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn published a paper detailing the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). This foundational work initiated what would become the TCP/IP protocol suite, establishing a robust framework for future networking. The decision to adopt TCP/IP for ARPANET in 1983 was pivotal, facilitating the birth of the modern Internet. The TCP/IP suite allowed for the segmentation of data into packet formats that could be sent across various network mediums, paving the way for scalability and interoperability.
-=== Expansion and Standardization ===
+In the 1990s and 2000s, the advent of the World Wide Web spurred the growth of additional protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol), each serving unique purposes within the ecosystem of network communication.
-As networking technology advanced, several other protocols were developed, particularly during the 1980s and 1990s. Protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) emerged to fulfill specific communication needs. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) also played a significant role in standardizing network protocols, particularly with the IEEE 802 series, which addresses local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs).
 == Design and Architecture ==
-=== Protocol Layers ===
+Network protocols are designed based on specific objectives and are categorized according to the OSI model, which consists of seven layers:
-Network protocols are typically organized into layered architectures that facilitate modularity and interoperability. The most widely recognized model is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which consists of seven layers:
+. **Physical Layer**: This layer involves the transmission of raw binary data over physical media. Protocols at this layer define the electrical, optical, and radio signals, as well as the hardware (cables, switches) required for data transfer.
+. **Data Link Layer**: This layer ensures reliable transmission of data frames between two directly connected nodes. Protocols like Ethernet and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) operate here, managing error detection and correction at this local level.
+. **Network Layer**: Responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through intermediate routers, the Internet Protocol (IP) is vital at this level. IP is divided into versions—IPv4 and IPv6—catering to addressing and routing requirements across networks.
-# Layer 7 - Application
+. **Transport Layer**: This layer guarantees end-to-end communication, managing flow control, segmentation, and reliability. TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are prominent transport layer protocols, where TCP provides reliable delivery and error checking, while UDP allows faster but non-reliable transmission.
-# Layer 6 - Presentation
-# Layer 5 - Session
-# Layer 4 - Transport
-# Layer 3 - Network
-# Layer 2 - Data Link
-# Layer 1 - Physical
-Each layer serves a specific function and communicates with the layers directly above and below it. This abstraction allows for independent protocol implementation while ensuring that data can traverse the entire stack.
+. **Session Layer**: This layer manages sessions or connections between network applications. Protocols in this layer, such as NetBIOS and RPC (Remote Procedure Call), facilitate communication and data exchange among services.
-=== Common Protocol Types ===
+. **Presentation Layer**: This layer translates data between the application layer and the network format. Protocol specifications here include mechanisms for data encoding, encryption, and compression.
-Network protocols can be categorized based on their functionality:
-* '''Communication Protocols:''' Govern how data is transmitted. Examples include TCP, UDP, and HTTP.
-* '''Routing Protocols:''' Direct traffic among multiple networks. Examples include Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
-* '''Security Protocols:''' Ensure secure communication over the network. Examples include SSL/TLS (Secure Socket Layer/Transport Layer Security) and IPsec (Internet Protocol Security).
-* '''Application Protocols:''' Operate at the application layer and facilitate access to network services. Examples include FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and POP3 (Post Office Protocol).
-=== Addressing and Naming ===
+. **Application Layer**: The topmost layer of the OSI model, it encompasses various user interface protocols that facilitate specific network services. Notable protocols include HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS (Domain Name System), and TELNET.
-Networking protocols also define systems for addressing, which enables devices to identify each other on a network. The most common addressing scheme is the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and its successor, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv4 employs a 32-bit address space, allowing for around 4.3 billion unique addresses, whereas IPv6 utilizes a 128-bit address space, vastly expanding the number of available addresses.
+These layers work collaboratively to ensure effective communication and are essential for the efficient operation of modern Internet and intranet systems.
 == Usage and Implementation ==
-=== Institutional Use ===
+Network protocols are implemented in various fields, serving numerous applications across distinct environments. Some key areas where protocols are widely used include:
-Network protocols are widely implemented in both private and public sector organizations. Businesses use protocols to ensure secure data transactions, facilitate communication among devices, and integrate various applications into a cohesive network. For instance, a corporate network might rely on TCP/IP protocols for data transfer, while employing VPN protocols to secure remote access for employees.
+. **Internet Communication**: The TCP/IP suite remains the backbone of the Internet, with protocols like IP and TCP facilitating global communication. Applications on this platform—such as web browsing, email, and file transfer—rely on corresponding application-layer protocols.
+. **Local Area Networking**: Within local networks, protocols such as Ethernet define local traffic rules and media access controls, ensuring efficient data flow among connected devices. Wireless protocols like Wi-Fi utilize radio signals for data transmission and network access.
+. **Telecommunications**: In telecommunication networks, signaling protocols (e.g., SS7) and transport protocols (e.g., RTP for real-time applications) enable the management of voice and video communications over both digital and analog channels.
+. **Cloud Computing**: As businesses increasingly migrate to cloud services, protocols like REST (Representational State Transfer) and SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) enable efficient web services and API (Application Programming Interface) communication.
-=== Public and Private Networks ===
+. **IoT (Internet of Things)**: The proliferation of IoT devices has led to the development and application of lightweight protocols designed for constrained environments, such as MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol).
-In public networks, such as the Internet, protocols like HTTP and HTTPS are fundamental for web-based communications. Organizations and service providers also adopt quality of service (QoS) protocols to manage bandwidth and improve the performance of high-priority services, such as video conferencing or VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol).
-=== Implementation Frameworks ===
+The implementation of these protocols involves using software and hardware components designed to adhere to established standards, ensuring seamless interoperability for end-users and devices.
-The implementation of network protocols often relies on frameworks that allow for the integration of diverse technologies. For instance, the use of software-defined networking (SDN) facilitates the management of networking resources through programmable interfaces, allowing administrators to dictate the behavior of their network protocols dynamically.
-=== Impact of Cloud Computing ===
+== Real-world Examples or Comparisons ==
-The rise of cloud computing has further reinforced the importance of network protocols. As data is increasingly stored and processed in the cloud, secure protocols, such as SSL/TLS, play an essential role in safeguarding user data and maintaining privacy. Moreover, cloud services often utilize REST (Representational State Transfer) as an architectural style for web-based communication, relying on HTTP as the underlying protocol.
-== Real-world Examples ==
+Several real-world networking protocols exemplify the diverse applications and functionalities provided by network protocols:
-=== Common Network Protocols ===
+. **HTTP vs. HTTPS**: While both protocols facilitate data transfer for web pages, HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) leverages encryption (via SSL/TLS) to secure data transfer between clients and servers, mitigating risks associated with data interception and tampering.
-A selection of some of the most important and commonly used network protocols includes:
-* '''Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):''' A fundamental transport layer protocol that ensures reliable data delivery by establishing a connection-oriented communication channel.
-* '''Internet Protocol (IP):''' The primary layer 3 protocol for routing data packets across networks, facilitating host addressing.
-* '''Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):''' Used for transferring web pages on the Internet, forming the backbone of data communications for the World Wide Web.
-* '''File Transfer Protocol (FTP):''' A standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server on a computer network.
-* '''Post Office Protocol (POP3):''' Utilized by email clients to retrieve emails from a mail server, allowing users to download and manage their email.
-=== Comparison of Protocols ===
+. **TCP vs. UDP**: TCP is used for applications requiring assured delivery and order (e.g., web browsing, file transfer), while UDP is preferred for applications where speed is critical, such as online gaming and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), where occasional data loss is tolerable.
-Comparisons of different network protocols highlight their respective strengths and ideal applications. For instance, TCP provides reliable delivery but incurs higher overhead, making it less suitable for real-time applications such as video streaming. Conversely, UDP, while less reliable, allows for faster transmission speeds, making it preferable for services where speed is critical, like online gaming.
+. **FTP vs. SFTP**: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is widely used for transferring files over a network but lacks inherent security features. In contrast, SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) operates over a secure channel, ensuring both authentication and encryption for file transfers.
+. **IPv4 vs. IPv6**: IPv4, the fourth version of the Internet Protocol, uses a 32-bit addressing scheme, limiting the number of available IP addresses. IPv6, a successor, offers a vastly expanded 128-bit addressing scheme, accommodating the growing number of devices connected to the Internet.
+These examples illustrate specific use cases, highlighting the distinctions and applications of different network protocols.
 == Criticism and Controversies ==
-=== Fragmentation of Standards ===
+Despite their importance, network protocols are not without criticism. Some controversies and concerns include:
-Despite significant progress in the development of network protocols, criticisms revolve around the fragmentation of standards. Various organizations continue to develop proprietary protocols, leading to compatibility issues, increased costs, and challenges in operational consistency across networks. This fragmentation can proliferate inefficiencies, calling into question the ease of interoperability.
+. **Security Vulnerabilities**: Many legacy protocols, such as FTP and HTTP, are criticized for their lack of encryption and inadequate authentication mechanisms. This vulnerability can lead to data breaches, unwarranted surveillance, and other security issues.
+. **Obsolescence and Transition**: The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 has met with resistance due to the complexities and costs involved in upgrading existing infrastructure. This delay has resulted in continued reliance on deprecated technologies, potentially exacerbating the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.
-=== Security Vulnerabilities ===
+. **Vendor Lock-In**: Certain proprietary protocols or implementations can lead to vendor lock-in, where organizations become dependent on specific technologies or systems, reducing flexibility and increasing costs in the long run.
-Many network protocols have been subject to criticism regarding security vulnerabilities. Protocols like HTTP are inherently insecure, leading to widespread adoption of HTTPS. However, even HTTPS is not immune to threats, such as man-in-the-middle attacks. Moreover, many legacy protocols remain in use, leaving systems exposed to known vulnerabilities, as seen with the continued reliance on FTP despite its lack of encryption.
-=== Evolving Requirements ===
+. **Interoperability Challenges**: The existence of numerous protocols can lead to compatibility issues, making it difficult for devices from different manufacturers or vendors to work together seamlessly. This challenge emphasizes the need for ongoing collaboration and standardization efforts in the networking industry.
-As network demands shift, existing protocols may not fully address emerging needs. The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, for instance, has introduced challenges around scalability, security, and communication protocols tailored for resource-constrained environments. The necessity for innovative protocols to address these unique requirements remains an active area of research and debate.
+Addressing these criticisms is essential for the future development and implementation of robust, secure, and efficient network protocols.
 == Influence and Impact ==
-=== Internet Growth ===
+Network protocols have significantly shaped the landscape of modern communication by enabling interoperability between diverse systems and facilitating the seamless exchange of information across the globe. Their influence is multifaceted:
-Network protocols have been fundamental to the growth and success of the Internet. The TCP/IP suite provided the framework upon which the Internet was built, allowing diverse systems to interconnect. This architecture has enabled an explosion of online services, e-commerce, social media, and information sharing, continuously reshaping business and social interactions.
+. **Global Connectivity**: Network protocols form the foundation of the Internet, allowing billions of devices to connect and communicate. This connectivity has transformed communication, commerce, entertainment, and education, leading to the rise of the digital economy.
+. **Innovation**: As new protocols emerge to address evolving technological needs, they have driven innovation in various fields, including streaming services, cloud computing, and IoT. Protocol development often spurs advancements in underlying technologies and applications.
+. **Standardization**: Organizations like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) play crucial roles in setting networking standards. These organizations foster collaboration among stakeholders, ensuring that protocols evolve to meet emerging needs while maintaining compatibility.
-=== Technological Advancements ===
+. **Policy and Regulation**: The proliferation of network protocols has prompted discussions around policy and regulation, particularly concerning data privacy, internet neutralities, and security practices. Coordinated efforts among governments, private sectors, and civil society are essential to safeguard public interest in a complex digital landscape.
-The evolution and standardization of network protocols have driven technological advancements in networking equipment, server architecture, and computing devices. Innovations in Wi-Fi standards (IEEE 802.11 family) illustrate the ongoing development of network protocols, continually enhancing data transmission speeds, range, and security features.
-=== Societal Transformation ===
+The far-reaching influence of network protocols underscores their role as foundational elements that enable and sustain digital communication and interaction among users worldwide.
-The impact of network protocols extends beyond technical specifications; they have transformed societal behaviors and patterns. The ability for global communication, real-time information exchange, and access to vast online resources has influenced how individuals interact, learn, and conduct business, fostering a more interconnected world.
 == See also ==
-* [[Communication protocols]]
+* [[Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model]]
-* [[Transmission Control Protocol]]
+* [[Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)]]
-* [[Internet Protocol]]
+* [[Internet Protocol (IP)]]
-* [[Layered architecture]]
+* [[User Datagram Protocol (UDP)]]
-* [[Open Systems Interconnection model]]
+* [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)]]
-* [[Network security]]
+* [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)]]
+* [[Domain Name System (DNS)]]
+* [[File Transfer Protocol (FTP)]]
+* [[Internet of Things (IoT)]]
+* [[Network Security]]
 == References ==
-* [https://www.ietf.org/ Internet Engineering Task Force]
+* [https://www.iso.org/iso-9011-data-communication.html ISO/IEC 8802-1:2019 - Information technology - Local area networks]
-* [https://www.iana.org/ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]
+* [https://ietf.org/ IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force]
-* [https://www.ietf.org/rfc/ RFC Document Archive]
+* [https://www.rfc-editor.org/ RFC Editor - The RFC Series]
-* [https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/Pages/default.aspx International Telecommunication Union]
+* [https://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)]
-* [https://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium]
+* [https://www.iana.org/ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)]
-* [https://www.iana.org/assignments/protocol-numbers/protocol-numbers.xhtml Protocol Number Registry]
 [[Category:Network protocols]]
 [[Category:Computer networking]]
-[[Category:Telecommunications]]
+[[Category:Communication protocols]]