File System: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:50, 6 July 2025

File System is a crucial component of a computer's operating system that manages how data is stored and retrieved on storage devices. It provides a systematic way to organize, name, store, and access files, allowing users and applications to interact with data efficiently. File systems abstract the complexities of data storage, enabling higher-level operations that align with user needs and application requirements.

Background or History

The concept of a file system has its roots in the early days of computing, where data was initially managed through a series of physical devices and manual processes. The advent of magnetic tape in the 1950s allowed for primitive forms of data storage, leading to the first file systems that managed data in a linear fashion. These systems required meticulous organization, making navigation labor-intensive and error-prone.

With the introduction of hard disk drives in the 1960s, file systems evolved significantly. The ability to access data randomly, rather than sequentially, necessitated a more structured approach. Early file systems such as the File Allocation Table (FAT), which emerged in 1977, were foundational in establishing a hierarchy for data storage. FAT allowed users to store large files, including text and binaries, in a more manageable manner.

As computer technology advanced, so did the complexity and functionality of file systems. The 1980s and 1990s saw the rise of more sophisticated file systems such as the UNIX File System (UFS) and the High Performance File System (HPFS). These systems introduced features such as permissions, symbolic links, and improved storage efficiency, enhancing data integrity and user access control. Meanwhile, other file systems like NTFS emerged to meet the diverse needs of Windows operating systems.

Today, file systems continue to adapt to new technologies, including solid-state drives (SSDs) and cloud storage, which require innovative designs to maximize performance and reliability. The history of file systems reflects a continuous effort to balance efficiency, security, and user convenience.

Architecture or Design

The architecture of a file system consists of several components that work together to manage data. At its core, a file system organizes files through structures known as directories and hierarchies. This organizational scheme enables users to navigate and retrieve information efficiently. The architecture can generally be broken down into several layers, each serving distinct functions.

Metadata

Metadata is essential for the operation of a file system. It contains information about the files, such as their names, sizes, types, creation dates, and permissions. Metadata acts as a database for the file system, allowing it to efficiently locate and access files. For example, when a user searches for a file, the system accesses its metadata to quickly determine its location on the storage medium.

Data Structures

File systems employ various data structures to manage files and directories effectively. Common data structures include linked lists, B-trees, and hash tables. Each structure has its advantages and is chosen based on performance needs, the expected size of the file system, and the frequency of file access. For instance, B-trees provide efficient insertions, deletions, and searches, making them suitable for large file systems.

File Allocation

File allocation is a critical aspect of file system design, involving decisions about how space on a storage device is divided among files. Various allocation methods exist, including contiguous allocation, linked allocation, and indexed allocation. Contiguous allocation assigns a continuous sequence of blocks on the disk to a file, which offers excellent performance but can lead to fragmentation. Linked allocation resolves fragmentation by connecting scattered blocks with pointers, while indexed allocation utilizes an index block to keep track of the data blocks associated with a file.

File Access Methods

File systems also define how files can be accessed by users and applications. The primary access methods include sequential access, where data is read in a predetermined order, and random access, where data can be read or written in any order. The choice of access method can significantly affect the performance of data manipulation operations, such as reading or writing files.

Journaling and Logging

Modern file systems often implement journaling or logging techniques to enhance data integrity. These methods keep a log of changes before they are made to the main file system structure, ensuring that, in the event of a crash or power failure, the system can recover to a consistent state. By recording all operations, journaling helps prevent data corruption and loss. Popular file systems like ext4 (used in Linux) and NTFS (used in Windows) incorporate these techniques to enhance reliability.

Implementation or Applications

File systems are implemented in various contexts, from personal computers and servers to specialized devices such as printers and embedded systems. Each application may require different file system characteristics based on performance needs, size constraints, and specific functionalities.

Personal Computers

Desktop and laptop computers commonly utilize standard file systems, including NTFS for Windows, APFS for macOS, and ext4 for Linux. Each of these file systems offers features tailored to the user's needs, such as dynamic resizing, robust permissions, and support for large file sizes. The choice of file system can significantly affect the system's performance and the user's overall experience.

Servers and Data Centers

In server environments, file systems must handle large volumes of data while ensuring high performance and reliability. File systems like ZFS and GlusterFS are specifically designed for these tasks. ZFS includes features like snapshotting, data compression, and built-in RAID functionality, providing robust solutions for data integrity and management. GlusterFS, on the other hand, incorporates a distributed file system architecture, allowing for scalable storage solutions across multiple servers.

Embedded Systems

Embedded systems, which often feature limited storage and processing capabilities, utilize specialized file systems designed for efficiency and minimal overhead. Examples include FAT for simple devices or more complex systems like YAFFS (Yet Another Flash File System) for NAND flash. These file systems prioritize speed and reliability to accommodate the constraints of their environments.

Cloud Storage

Cloud storage services also rely on file systems to manage data distributed across multiple servers. These services may employ custom file systems or adapt existing ones to suit their architecture. For instance, Google File System (GFS) is designed specifically for Google's infrastructure, providing a fault-tolerant and distributed storage solution capable of handling petabytes of data.

Real-world Examples

Successful implementations of various file systems can be seen across numerous industries, demonstrating the flexibility and adaptability of file system technologies.

Ext4

The ext4 file system has become a standard choice among Linux distributions since its introduction in 2008. It offers significant improvements over its predecessor ext3, such as increased performance, support for larger file sizes, and advanced features like extents (contiguous blocks of storage), allowing for efficient management of space. Its reliability and robustness have made it a favored option for both servers and desktop environments.

NTFS

The NTFS file system, introduced with Windows NT in 1993, is known for its support of large volumes and files, enhanced security features, and journaling capabilities. NTFS has become the default file system for Windows operating systems, allowing users to create large partitions and securely manage file permissions and encryption. NTFS's adaptability has helped maintain its relevance for decades, supporting a wide range of applications from personal computing to enterprise-level solutions.

APFS

Apple File System (APFS) is designed for macOS and iOS devices, emphasizing efficiency and performance on solid-state storage. Introduced in 2017, APFS offers features like snapshots, which enable system restore points, and space-sharing capabilities that optimize storage usage. Its architecture provides enhanced speed and reliability, making it suitable for modern devices that require rapid data access.

ZFS

ZFS, a combined file system and logical volume manager, was developed by Sun Microsystems for Solaris in the mid-2000s. It highlights advanced data integrity through its use of checksums and snapshots, making it highly effective for enterprise data centers. ZFS's ability to manage vast amounts of data with built-in redundancy has made it a popular choice for organizations prioritizing data security and reliability.

Criticism or Limitations

Despite the advancements in file system technology, several criticisms and limitations have emerged, challenging their performance, usability, and scalability.

Fragmentation

File fragmentation occurs when a file is stored in non-contiguous blocks across a storage medium. This fragmentation can slow down read and write operations, as the file system must gather the scattered pieces of data. While some modern file systems implement techniques to minimize fragmentation, it can still be a concern, particularly in systems with limited resources.

Scalability Issues

As data continues to proliferate, many file systems face scalability challenges. Systems designed for smaller volumes may struggle to handle vast amounts of data or high transaction rates. While distributed file systems offer some scalability, they can also introduce complexity and potential points of failure, requiring careful management and oversight.

Compatibility

Different operating systems and file systems are often incompatible, leading to challenges in data sharing and accessibility. For instance, NTFS is not natively supported by Linux, complicating file transfers between Windows and Linux environments. Although tools exist to facilitate cross-platform compatibility, they often introduce performance penalties and may not support all features of the respective file systems.

Security Vulnerabilities

File systems are not immune to security threats. Vulnerabilities in file system implementations can result in data breaches, unauthorized access, and data loss. While modern file systems incorporate various security features, continuous advancements in hacking techniques necessitate ongoing improvements in file system security to protect sensitive information.

References

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-== File System ==
+'''File System''' is a crucial component of a computer's operating system that manages how data is stored and retrieved on storage devices. It provides a systematic way to organize, name, store, and access files, allowing users and applications to interact with data efficiently. File systems abstract the complexities of data storage, enabling higher-level operations that align with user needs and application requirements.
-A '''file system''' is a method and data structure that an operating system uses to manage files on a disk or partition. It provides the mechanisms for creating, reading, writing, and deleting files as well as managing storage space on the physical media. File systems are crucial for both personal and enterprise computing as they determine how data is organized, stored, and accessed.
+== Background or History ==
+The concept of a file system has its roots in the early days of computing, where data was initially managed through a series of physical devices and manual processes. The advent of magnetic tape in the 1950s allowed for primitive forms of data storage, leading to the first file systems that managed data in a linear fashion. These systems required meticulous organization, making navigation labor-intensive and error-prone.
-== Introduction ==
+With the introduction of hard disk drives in the 1960s, file systems evolved significantly. The ability to access data randomly, rather than sequentially, necessitated a more structured approach. Early file systems such as the File Allocation Table (FAT), which emerged in 1977, were foundational in establishing a hierarchy for data storage. FAT allowed users to store large files, including text and binaries, in a more manageable manner.
-In computing, a file system is responsible for the logical organization of files, storage, and retrieval. It provides a way for users and applications to store data in a structured manner, enabling efficient access and management. File systems abstract the underlying physical storage, allowing users to interact with files using human-friendly names rather than complex binary data. With the advent of various storage media, file systems have evolved to optimize for different types of operations and hardware characteristics.
+As computer technology advanced, so did the complexity and functionality of file systems. The 1980s and 1990s saw the rise of more sophisticated file systems such as the UNIX File System (UFS) and the High Performance File System (HPFS). These systems introduced features such as permissions, symbolic links, and improved storage efficiency, enhancing data integrity and user access control. Meanwhile, other file systems like NTFS emerged to meet the diverse needs of Windows operating systems.
-== History ==
+Today, file systems continue to adapt to new technologies, including solid-state drives (SSDs) and cloud storage, which require innovative designs to maximize performance and reliability. The history of file systems reflects a continuous effort to balance efficiency, security, and user convenience.
-The concept of a file system originated with early mainframe computers in the 1950s, where data was stored in punch cards and magnetic tapes. As technology progressed, the need for more sophisticated data management techniques emerged. In the 1960s and 1970s, operating systems such as MULTICS and UNIX introduced hierarchical file systems that organized data into directories and subdirectories, leading to a more intuitive structure for users.
+== Architecture or Design ==
+The architecture of a file system consists of several components that work together to manage data. At its core, a file system organizes files through structures known as directories and hierarchies. This organizational scheme enables users to navigate and retrieve information efficiently. The architecture can generally be broken down into several layers, each serving distinct functions.
-Throughout the years, several innovations in file system design have emerged to accommodate the growing complexity of data storage and retrieval. For instance, the introduction of hard disk drives (HDD) in the late 1970s necessitated the development of file systems capable of managing larger volumes of data. Notable examples include the FAT (File Allocation Table) file system developed by Microsoft, which became one of the most widely used file systems for personal computers.
+=== Metadata ===
+Metadata is essential for the operation of a file system. It contains information about the files, such as their names, sizes, types, creation dates, and permissions. Metadata acts as a database for the file system, allowing it to efficiently locate and access files. For example, when a user searches for a file, the system accesses its metadata to quickly determine its location on the storage medium.
-In the 1980s and 1990s, advancements in technology led to the development of more robust file systems, such as NTFS (New Technology File System) introduced by Microsoft with Windows NT. NTFS offered features like file system journaling, which improved reliability, and support for larger files and volumes. Concurrently, UNIX-based systems adopted file systems like ext2 and later ext3 and ext4, which included improvements in performance and features such as journaling and extended attributes.
+=== Data Structures ===
+File systems employ various data structures to manage files and directories effectively. Common data structures include linked lists, B-trees, and hash tables. Each structure has its advantages and is chosen based on performance needs, the expected size of the file system, and the frequency of file access. For instance, B-trees provide efficient insertions, deletions, and searches, making them suitable for large file systems.
-In the 21st century, the emergence of flash storage devices and solid-state drives (SSD) prompted further innovation in file systems, including those designed specifically for these technologies like APFS (Apple File System) and Btrfs (B-tree file system). These new file systems provide enhancements such as snapshot capabilities, dynamic allocation, and improved performance.
+=== File Allocation ===
+File allocation is a critical aspect of file system design, involving decisions about how space on a storage device is divided among files. Various allocation methods exist, including contiguous allocation, linked allocation, and indexed allocation. Contiguous allocation assigns a continuous sequence of blocks on the disk to a file, which offers excellent performance but can lead to fragmentation. Linked allocation resolves fragmentation by connecting scattered blocks with pointers, while indexed allocation utilizes an index block to keep track of the data blocks associated with a file.
-== Design and Architecture ==
+=== File Access Methods ===
+File systems also define how files can be accessed by users and applications. The primary access methods include sequential access, where data is read in a predetermined order, and random access, where data can be read or written in any order. The choice of access method can significantly affect the performance of data manipulation operations, such as reading or writing files.
-The design and architecture of a file system involve several key components and concepts, which collectively dictate how data is structured, stored, accessed, and managed. Understanding these components is essential to grasp the functioning of different file systems.
+=== Journaling and Logging ===
+Modern file systems often implement journaling or logging techniques to enhance data integrity. These methods keep a log of changes before they are made to the main file system structure, ensuring that, in the event of a crash or power failure, the system can recover to a consistent state. By recording all operations, journaling helps prevent data corruption and loss. Popular file systems like ext4 (used in Linux) and NTFS (used in Windows) incorporate these techniques to enhance reliability.
-=== 1. File Hierarchy ===
+== Implementation or Applications ==
+File systems are implemented in various contexts, from personal computers and servers to specialized devices such as printers and embedded systems. Each application may require different file system characteristics based on performance needs, size constraints, and specific functionalities.
-The file hierarchy is a core component of most file systems, resembling an inverted tree structure where files are organized within directories (or folders). This structure allows for easy navigation and organization of files. The root directory sits at the top of the hierarchy, with subsequent subdirectories leading to individual files.
+=== Personal Computers ===
+Desktop and laptop computers commonly utilize standard file systems, including NTFS for Windows, APFS for macOS, and ext4 for Linux. Each of these file systems offers features tailored to the user's needs, such as dynamic resizing, robust permissions, and support for large file sizes. The choice of file system can significantly affect the system's performance and the user's overall experience.
-=== 2. Metadata ===
+=== Servers and Data Centers ===
+In server environments, file systems must handle large volumes of data while ensuring high performance and reliability. File systems like ZFS and GlusterFS are specifically designed for these tasks. ZFS includes features like snapshotting, data compression, and built-in RAID functionality, providing robust solutions for data integrity and management. GlusterFS, on the other hand, incorporates a distributed file system architecture, allowing for scalable storage solutions across multiple servers.
-Metadata is essential for file systems, as it provides information about files, such as their size, type, permissions, creation date, and modification date. Most file systems store metadata in a separate structure from the actual file data, allowing for quick access and management.
+=== Embedded Systems ===
+Embedded systems, which often feature limited storage and processing capabilities, utilize specialized file systems designed for efficiency and minimal overhead. Examples include FAT for simple devices or more complex systems like YAFFS (Yet Another Flash File System) for NAND flash. These file systems prioritize speed and reliability to accommodate the constraints of their environments.
-=== 3. Block Allocation ===
+=== Cloud Storage ===
+Cloud storage services also rely on file systems to manage data distributed across multiple servers. These services may employ custom file systems or adapt existing ones to suit their architecture. For instance, Google File System (GFS) is designed specifically for Google's infrastructure, providing a fault-tolerant and distributed storage solution capable of handling petabytes of data.
-Storage on disk drives is typically organized in fixed-size blocks or clusters. A file system uses block allocation to manage how data is physically stored. File systems may utilize contiguous allocation, linked allocation, or indexed allocation, each having its advantages and disadvantages in terms of performance and fragmentation.
-* '''Contiguous Allocation''' stores files in consecutive blocks on the storage medium, minimizing seek time but leading to fragmentation as files are created and deleted over time.
-* '''Linked Allocation''' links file blocks using pointers, facilitating efficient storage but possibly resulting in increased seek time due to non-contiguous storage.
-* '''Indexed Allocation''' maintains an index block to keep track of the various blocks of a file, providing a balanced approach to performance and fragmentation concerns.
-=== 4. Journaling ===
-File systems often implement journaling as a means of enhancing data integrity and recovery. A journal, or log, records changes made to the file system before they are committed. In the event of a system crash or power failure, the file system can be restored to a consistent state by replaying the journal entries.
-=== 5. Access Control and Permissions ===
-Another critical aspect of file systems is how they manage user access and permissions. This security feature dictates what users can do with each file, including reading, writing, or executing. Most modern file systems support Access Control Lists (ACLs) that allow for fine-grained control over file permissions.
-== Usage and Implementation ==
-File systems are implemented across various operating systems and storage mediums, each tailored to meet specific needs regarding performance, reliability, and usability. They play a critical role in the functioning of operating systems, databases, and applications.
-=== 1. Operating Systems ===
-Different operating systems utilize specific file systems to store and manage data. For example:
-* **Windows** primarily uses NTFS for its Windows NT-based operating systems, while FAT32 is often employed for external drives and compatibility with older systems.
-* **Linux** supports a variety of file systems, including ext3, ext4, Btrfs, and XFS, among others, allowing users to choose based on their performance and reliability needs.
-* **macOS** employs APFS, which optimizes performance for SSDs, enabling features like snapshot capabilities and space-efficient storage.
-=== 2. Specialized File Systems ===
-Aside from standard file systems, there are specialized files systems designed for specific applications:
-* **Database File Systems**: These file systems support data management more akin to databases, optimizing for transactional workloads and enabling multi-user access. Examples include ZFS (Zettabyte File System) and Oracle's DBFS.
-* **Network File Systems**: These file systems allow files to be shared among multiple users across a network. NFS (Network File System) and SMB (Server Message Block) are well-known examples that enable remote file access and collaboration.
-=== 3. Flash Storage and SSDs ===
-The design of file systems for flash storage and SSDs emphasizes performance and endurance. File systems like APFS, F2FS (Flash-Friendly File System), and ext4 with SSD optimizations consider the unique characteristics of flash memory, such as wear leveling and reduced random write speed, to maximize efficiency and lifespan.
 == Real-world Examples ==
+Successful implementations of various file systems can be seen across numerous industries, demonstrating the flexibility and adaptability of file system technologies.
-Numerous file systems exist, with varying features and performance metrics. Below are some prominent examples:
+=== Ext4 ===
+The ext4 file system has become a standard choice among Linux distributions since its introduction in 2008. It offers significant improvements over its predecessor ext3, such as increased performance, support for larger file sizes, and advanced features like extents (contiguous blocks of storage), allowing for efficient management of space. Its reliability and robustness have made it a favored option for both servers and desktop environments.
-=== 1. FAT32 ===
-FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32) is one of the oldest file systems still in widespread use today. Introduced by Microsoft in the 1970s, FAT32 supports file sizes up to 4 GB and volumes up to 8 TB. It is compatible with virtually all operating systems, which contributes to its popularity for external drives and flash storage.
-=== 2. NTFS ===
-NTFS provides advanced features such as journaling, file permissions, encryption, and support for large files and volumes. As the primary file system for Windows, NTFS is utilized in many enterprise environments, offering a robust solution for data protection and integrity.
-=== 3. ext4 ===
-ext4 is a widely used file system in Linux environments, known for its speed, reliability, and ease of use. It includes a journaling feature, supports large files (up to 16 TB), and provides backward compatibility with ext3. ext4’s design allows for a more efficient allocation of space, reducing fragmentation and enhancing performance.
-=== 4. APFS ===
-APFS is the file system introduced by Apple for macOS and iOS that optimizes for flash storage. APFS features such as snapshot capability, space sharing, and strong encryption address modern storage and security needs, making it an ideal choice for Apple's devices.
-=== 5. Btrfs ===
-Btrfs is a modern file system for Linux that offers advanced features like snapshots, RAID support, and volume management. Btrfs is designed to facilitate easier management of disk storage and aims to address many limitations found in older file systems.
-== Criticism and Controversies ==
-While many file systems have garnered significant attention for their advancements and features, they also face criticism and controversies concerning their design and implementation.
-=== 1. Fragmentation ===
-One of the significant challenges that file systems encounter is fragmentation, a phenomenon where data is not stored in contiguous blocks, leading to performance degradation. File systems like FAT32 and NTFS can suffer from fragmentation over time, resulting in increased seek times and slower read/write speeds. Various defragmentation tools attempt to mitigate this issue, but they can be time-consuming and imperfect solutions.
-=== 2. Limited Compatibility ===
-Some file systems have limited compatibility across different operating systems. For example, NTFS is not natively supported by macOS for writing, which can lead to data transfer challenges between different systems. This lack of interoperability highlights the importance of utilizing widely adopted file systems for external storage.
-=== 3. Complexity and Management ===
-File systems such as Btrfs and ZFS offer powerful features, yet their complexity can be a barrier to users and system administrators. Properly configuring and managing advanced features, including snapshots and RAID configurations, requires significant expertise and can introduce risks if not done correctly.
-== Influence and Impact ==
+=== NTFS ===
+The NTFS file system, introduced with Windows NT in 1993, is known for its support of large volumes and files, enhanced security features, and journaling capabilities. NTFS has become the default file system for Windows operating systems, allowing users to create large partitions and securely manage file permissions and encryption. NTFS's adaptability has helped maintain its relevance for decades, supporting a wide range of applications from personal computing to enterprise-level solutions.
-File systems have been instrumental in shaping the way data is stored, managed, and retrieved. Their design and functionality have profound implications in numerous contexts.
+=== APFS ===
+Apple File System (APFS) is designed for macOS and iOS devices, emphasizing efficiency and performance on solid-state storage. Introduced in 2017, APFS offers features like snapshots, which enable system restore points, and space-sharing capabilities that optimize storage usage. Its architecture provides enhanced speed and reliability, making it suitable for modern devices that require rapid data access.
-=== 1. Data Integrity and Recovery ===
+=== ZFS ===
+ZFS, a combined file system and logical volume manager, was developed by Sun Microsystems for Solaris in the mid-2000s. It highlights advanced data integrity through its use of checksums and snapshots, making it highly effective for enterprise data centers. ZFS's ability to manage vast amounts of data with built-in redundancy has made it a popular choice for organizations prioritizing data security and reliability.
-File systems with advanced features, such as journaling, contribute to data integrity by ensuring that systems can recover to a consistent state after failures. This capability is crucial for enterprise applications and systems that require high availability and reliability.
+== Criticism or Limitations ==
+Despite the advancements in file system technology, several criticisms and limitations have emerged, challenging their performance, usability, and scalability.
-=== 2. User Experience ===
+=== Fragmentation ===
+File fragmentation occurs when a file is stored in non-contiguous blocks across a storage medium. This fragmentation can slow down read and write operations, as the file system must gather the scattered pieces of data. While some modern file systems implement techniques to minimize fragmentation, it can still be a concern, particularly in systems with limited resources.
-The organization and access provided by file systems highly influence user experience for individuals and businesses alike. File systems that allow intuitive navigation, effective search capabilities, and quick access to data result in improved productivity and satisfaction.
+=== Scalability Issues ===
+As data continues to proliferate, many file systems face scalability challenges. Systems designed for smaller volumes may struggle to handle vast amounts of data or high transaction rates. While distributed file systems offer some scalability, they can also introduce complexity and potential points of failure, requiring careful management and oversight.
-=== 3. Innovation and Development ===
+=== Compatibility ===
+Different operating systems and file systems are often incompatible, leading to challenges in data sharing and accessibility. For instance, NTFS is not natively supported by Linux, complicating file transfers between Windows and Linux environments. Although tools exist to facilitate cross-platform compatibility, they often introduce performance penalties and may not support all features of the respective file systems.
-The ongoing development of new file systems pushes the envelope in data management technologies, influencing the broader landscape of computing. Newer file systems cater to the demands of modern hardware, such as SSDs and cloud storage, leading to innovations that can change foundational computing principles.
+=== Security Vulnerabilities ===
+File systems are not immune to security threats. Vulnerabilities in file system implementations can result in data breaches, unauthorized access, and data loss. While modern file systems incorporate various security features, continuous advancements in hacking techniques necessitate ongoing improvements in file system security to protect sensitive information.
-== See Also ==
+== See also ==
-* [[Access Control List]]
+* [[Data storage]]
-* [[Cluster (computing)]]
+* [[Computer operating system]]
-* [[Journaling file system]]
-* [[Metadata]]
 * [[Solid-state drive]]
-* [[Network File System]]
+* [[NTFS]]
-* [[Unix file system]]
+* [[FAT]]
-* [[File extension]]
+* [[Distributed file system]]
 == References ==
-* [https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/windows-10-specifications Microsoft Windows 10 Specifications]
+* [https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/nt File System Overview - Microsoft]
-* [https://www.linux.org/ Linux.org]
+* [https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/filesystems/index.html Linux Filesystem Documentation]
-* [https://developer.apple.com/filesystems/ Apple File System Overview]
+* [https://www.freebsd.org/doc/handbook/Filesystem.html FreeBSD Handbook - File Systems]
-* [https://wiki.archlinux.org/title/Filesystem Arch Linux Filesystem Documentation]
+* [https://www.apple.com/apfs/ Apple File System - Apple]
-* [https://www.oracle.com/database/technologies/standard-file-system.html Oracle Database File System]
+* [https://zfs.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page ZFS Wiki]
-* [https://btrfs.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page Btrfs Wiki]
+* [https://www.gnu.org/software/gcrypt/manual/html_node/Data-Storage.html GNU Privacy Guard - File Storage]
 [[Category:File systems]]
-[[Category:Computer storage]]
+[[Category:Data storage]]
 [[Category:Computer science]]