Cloud Computing: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:51, 6 July 2025

Cloud Computing is a transformative model that enables ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services). This paradigm shift allows for efficient management of resources, scalable solutions, and reduced operational costs across various industries. As a foundational technology, cloud computing has become integral to modern computing infrastructures, influencing how organizations develop, deploy, and manage software and services.

History

The concept of cloud computing traces its origins back several decades. The term itself began to gain traction in the early 2000s, but its roots can be found in earlier technologies.

Early Developments

The groundwork for cloud computing can be traced back to the 1960s with the introduction of time-sharing systems, which allowed multiple users to access a central computer simultaneously. This concept evolved with advancements in networking and virtualization technologies throughout the 1970s and 1980s. The establishment of the ARPANET, the precursor to the modern internet, further facilitated remote access to computing resources.

Commercialization and the Emergence of Cloud Services

By the late 1990s, companies like Salesforce began offering software as a service (SaaS), marking an important milestone in the commercialization of cloud technologies. The phrase "cloud computing" was first coined around 2006, coinciding with significant investments in data centers and infrastructure by tech giants such as Amazon, Google, and Microsoft. Amazon's launch of Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2006 is often considered a pivotal moment in the cloud computing landscape, transitioning from traditional IT models to pay-as-you-go cloud services.

Architecture

Cloud computing is characterized by its layered architecture, which is typically divided into three primary service models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). These models define the different levels of abstraction offered by cloud providers and cater to distinct user needs.

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

IaaS provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. Users can rent IT infrastructure such as virtual machines, storage, and networks, allowing them to deploy and manage operating systems and applications. IaaS is particularly useful for businesses looking to avoid the costs and overhead associated with maintaining physical hardware. Notable providers of IaaS include AWS, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform.

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

PaaS offers cloud components to users for application development without the complexities of managing the underlying infrastructure. Developers can build applications using the tools and services provided by the PaaS platform, including databases, middleware, and development frameworks. This model supports collaboration among development teams and accelerates the deployment of applications. Key PaaS providers include Heroku, Google App Engine, and Red Hat OpenShift.

Software as a Service (SaaS)

SaaS delivers software applications over the internet on a subscription basis. Instead of installing software on local computers, users access applications through web browsers. This model reduces the need for internal IT resources, simplifies maintenance, and allows for easy updates and scalability. Prominent examples of SaaS include Salesforce, Microsoft Office 365, and Google Workspace.

Implementation

The implementation of cloud computing requires an understanding of various models and a strategic approach to integration within an organization. Factors such as data security, compliance, and performance should inform the deployment strategy.

Migration Strategies

Organizations looking to migrate to cloud computing can adopt several strategies. The "lift-and-shift" approach involves transferring applications and workloads as they are from on-premises environments to the cloud without re-architecting. This method is often faster and less disruptive but may not leverage the full benefits of cloud-native solutions. Alternatively, businesses may choose to refactor applications to better fit the cloud environment, usually resulting in improved performance and scalability.

DevOps and Cloud Integration

The integration of DevOps practices into cloud deployments can enhance collaboration and streamline the development-to-production pipeline. Continuous integration and continuous deployment (CI/CD) play crucial roles in ensuring that code changes are automatically tested and deployed, facilitating faster releases. Cloud-native tools and services can support these practices, enabling organizations to achieve greater agility in software development.

Security and Compliance Considerations

Security remains a paramount concern in cloud computing. Organizations must consider data privacy, compliance with regulations such as GDPR, and the protection of sensitive information. Cloud providers typically offer various security features, including encryption, identity management, and incident response. Additionally, organizations should implement robust policies and practices to secure their cloud environments, including regular security assessments and training for staff.

Applications

The applications of cloud computing are vast and continue to evolve as technology advances. Industries across the spectrum leverage cloud-based solutions to enhance their operations and performance.

Business and Enterprise Applications

Many businesses utilize cloud computing for enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), and human resources management (HRM). By adopting SaaS solutions, organizations can streamline their processes, improve collaboration among teams, and gain access to real-time data analytics. This accessibility facilitates informed decision-making and improves operational efficiency.

Data Storage and Backup

Cloud storage services offer scalable and cost-effective solutions for data storage and backups. Organizations can store vast amounts of data without the need for physical infrastructure, allowing for greater flexibility. In addition, many cloud providers feature backup and disaster recovery solutions that protect data from loss or corruption, ensuring business continuity.

Internet of Things (IoT)

The rise of IoT has been significantly supported by cloud computing capabilities. Cloud platforms provide the necessary infrastructure for processing and storing data generated by IoT devices. This relationship enables organizations to analyze data in real-time and utilize insights for optimizing operations, monitoring systems proactively, and enhancing customer experiences.

Real-world Examples

Several companies have successfully implemented cloud computing strategies, leading to notable transformations in their operations and services.

Netflix

Netflix, one of the largest streaming services globally, utilizes Amazon Web Services (AWS) to manage its data storage and content delivery. By leveraging cloud resources, Netflix can scale its infrastructure to accommodate fluctuating demands from users during peak viewing times, ensuring smooth service delivery. Furthermore, the cloud enables the company to innovate rapidly, experiment with new features, and enhance user experience.

Airbnb

Airbnb, a leading online marketplace for lodging and travel, employs cloud computing to handle its extensive data needs. The platform operates on AWS to manage user data, screen potential hosts, and provide personalized recommendations for travelers. This utilization of cloud services has enabled Airbnb to grow rapidly, adjust to market changes, and deliver a seamless experience to millions of users worldwide.

Slack

Slack, a team collaboration tool, is built on a cloud-based infrastructure, allowing users to communicate and collaborate in real time. It leverages various cloud services for its messaging system, file sharing, and application integrations, providing a cohesive experience for remote teams and enhancing workplace productivity.

Criticism and Limitations

Despite its many advantages, cloud computing is not without its challenges and criticisms.

Potential Security Risks

The transition to cloud services can lead to concerns about data breaches and unauthorized access. While cloud providers invest heavily in security measures, organizations are ultimately responsible for safeguarding their data. This shared responsibility model can create gaps if not managed adequately.

Downtime and Reliability Issues

Cloud computing services are not immune to outages. Downtime can result in substantial loss for organizations that rely heavily on cloud infrastructure for their operations. Understanding the terms of service, particularly related to uptime guarantees and service level agreements (SLAs), is critical for businesses before transitioning to the cloud.

Vendor Lock-In

Dependency on a single cloud provider can lead to vendor lock-in, where organizations face challenges when attempting to migrate to another service or platform. This situation can limit flexibility and increase costs, making it crucial for businesses to evaluate multi-cloud strategies to mitigate such risks.

References

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Cloud Computing =
+'''Cloud Computing''' is a transformative model that enables ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services). This paradigm shift allows for efficient management of resources, scalable solutions, and reduced operational costs across various industries. As a foundational technology, cloud computing has become integral to modern computing infrastructures, influencing how organizations develop, deploy, and manage software and services.
-== Introduction ==
+== History ==
-Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This model promotes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment models. It has dramatically transformed how computing resources are accessed and delivered, impacting businesses and individuals alike.
-== History ==
+The concept of cloud computing traces its origins back several decades. The term itself began to gain traction in the early 2000s, but its roots can be found in earlier technologies.
 === Early Developments ===
-The concept of cloud computing has roots dating back to the 1960s when computer visionary J.C.R. Licklider of MIT first proposed an interconnected global network. In the 1990s, the advent of the Internet brought about a shift from locally hosted applications to remotely hosted services. During this decade, companies like Salesforce.com pioneered the application of web-based software delivery through Software as a Service (SaaS).
-=== Emergence of Commercial Services ===
+The groundwork for cloud computing can be traced back to the 1960s with the introduction of time-sharing systems, which allowed multiple users to access a central computer simultaneously. This concept evolved with advancements in networking and virtualization technologies throughout the 1970s and 1980s. The establishment of the ARPANET, the precursor to the modern internet, further facilitated remote access to computing resources.
-In the early 2000s, significant advancements occurred with the introduction of Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2006, which offered infrastructure as a service (IaaS) in the form of scalable storage and computation. This marked a key milestone in cloud computing, as it enabled businesses to utilize remote resources without substantial investment in physical infrastructure. Google, Microsoft, and IBM followed suit, launching their cloud computing services, which contributed to widespread adoption.
+=== Commercialization and the Emergence of Cloud Services ===
-=== Modern Era ===
+By the late 1990s, companies like Salesforce began offering software as a service (SaaS), marking an important milestone in the commercialization of cloud technologies. The phrase "cloud computing" was first coined around 2006, coinciding with significant investments in data centers and infrastructure by tech giants such as Amazon, Google, and Microsoft. Amazon's launch of Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2006 is often considered a pivotal moment in the cloud computing landscape, transitioning from traditional IT models to pay-as-you-go cloud services.
-By the 2010s, cloud computing had evolved into a mature industry, permeating various sectors. The emergence of containerization and microservices architecture shifted the focus toward efficiency and security while enabling the development of cloud-native applications. By 2020, enterprises worldwide increasingly adopted a multi-cloud strategy, utilizing services from multiple cloud providers to mitigate risks and enhance operational resilience.
-== Design and Architecture ==
+== Architecture ==
-=== Essential Characteristics ===
+Cloud computing is characterized by its layered architecture, which is typically divided into three primary service models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). These models define the different levels of abstraction offered by cloud providers and cater to distinct user needs.
-Cloud computing encompasses five critical characteristics:
-# '''On-demand self-service''': Users can automatically provision resources without human interaction with the service provider.
-# '''Broad network access''': Services are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms, facilitating use across varied platforms.
-# '''Resource pooling''': The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers, with resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to demand.
-# '''Rapid elasticity''': Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand.
-# '''Measured service''': Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth).
-=== Service Models ===
+=== Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) ===
-Cloud computing is commonly divided into three primary service models:
-* '''Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)''': Provides virtualized physical computing resources over the Internet. IaaS offers high flexibility and scalability, allowing users to rent virtual machines and associated resources as needed. Examples include AWS EC2, Google Compute Engine, and Microsoft Azure.
-* '''Platform as a Service (PaaS)''': Delivers a computing platform and solution stack as a service, enabling developers to create applications without managing infrastructure. This model supports the development, testing, and deployment of applications. Notable examples are Heroku, Google App Engine, and Microsoft Azure App Service.
-* '''Software as a Service (SaaS)''': Offers software applications over the Internet on a subscription basis, eliminating the need for installation and maintenance. This model is commonly used for email, customer relationship management (CRM), and collaboration tools. Prominent examples include Google Workspace, Microsoft 365, and Salesforce.
-=== Deployment Models ===
+IaaS provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. Users can rent IT infrastructure such as virtual machines, storage, and networks, allowing them to deploy and manage operating systems and applications. IaaS is particularly useful for businesses looking to avoid the costs and overhead associated with maintaining physical hardware. Notable providers of IaaS include AWS, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform.
-There are four main cloud deployment models:
-* '''Public Cloud''': Resources are owned and operated by third-party cloud service providers and delivered over the Internet. This is cost-effective as users pay for only the resources they consume. Example providers include AWS, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform.
-* '''Private Cloud''': Exclusive cloud resources dedicated to a single organization, offering higher security and control. Private clouds can be hosted on-premises or by a third-party provider.
-* '''Hybrid Cloud''': A combination of public and private clouds that allows data and applications to be shared between them. This model provides greater flexibility and deployment options, enabling organizations to adapt to changing business needs.
-* '''Community Cloud''': Shared infrastructure for a specific community of users from organizations with shared concerns, such as security, compliance, or jurisdiction. It can be managed internally or by a third party.
-=== Security Considerations ===
+=== Platform as a Service (PaaS) ===
-Security remains one of the foremost concerns in cloud computing. Organizations must consider data privacy, compliance with regulations, and potential risks associated with data breaches. Major cloud providers implement robust security measures to protect data, including encryption, identity management, and access controls. It is essential for businesses to carefully select cloud service providers that align with their security requirements and conduct regular audits.
-== Usage and Implementation ==
+PaaS offers cloud components to users for application development without the complexities of managing the underlying infrastructure. Developers can build applications using the tools and services provided by the PaaS platform, including databases, middleware, and development frameworks. This model supports collaboration among development teams and accelerates the deployment of applications. Key PaaS providers include Heroku, Google App Engine, and Red Hat OpenShift.
-=== Business Applications ===
+=== Software as a Service (SaaS) ===
-Cloud computing has transformed various industries by enhancing operational efficiency, reducing costs, and enabling innovation. It supports diverse applications, such as:
-* '''Data Storage and Backup''': Organizations leverage cloud solutions for scalable storage and robust backup infrastructure, minimizing data loss risks.
-* '''Collaboration Tools''': Cloud-based collaboration platforms facilitate real-time editing, file sharing, and communication among teams, regardless of their geographical location. Examples include Microsoft Teams and Slack.
-* '''Big Data and Analytics''': The cloud provides scalable computing resources to process large datasets, enabling businesses to perform advanced analytics and derive insights for informed decision-making.
-* '''Development and Testing Environments''': Developers can rapidly prototype, test, and deploy applications using cloud environments, significantly reducing time-to-market.
-=== Personal Applications ===
+SaaS delivers software applications over the internet on a subscription basis. Instead of installing software on local computers, users access applications through web browsers. This model reduces the need for internal IT resources, simplifies maintenance, and allows for easy updates and scalability. Prominent examples of SaaS include Salesforce, Microsoft Office 365, and Google Workspace.
-For individuals, cloud computing offers a range of services, including:
-* '''File Storage and Sharing''': Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and iCloud allow users to store files online and share them seamlessly across devices.
-* '''Software Access''': Consumers can access applications such as Adobe Creative Cloud and streaming services like Netflix without requiring traditional licenses or downloads.
-* '''Backup and Recovery Services''': Automated backup solutions offered by various providers ensure that personal data is securely stored and easily recoverable.
-=== Challenges and Considerations ===
+== Implementation ==
-While cloud computing presents numerous advantages, organizations must navigate several challenges:
-* '''Vendor Lock-in''': Dependence on a specific cloud provider can limit flexibility and increase switching costs. Businesses should employ multi-cloud strategies to mitigate this risk.
+The implementation of cloud computing requires an understanding of various models and a strategic approach to integration within an organization. Factors such as data security, compliance, and performance should inform the deployment strategy.
-* '''Data Transfer Costs''': Some providers charge for data egress, potentially leading to unforeseen costs. Organizations should evaluate data transfer fees when selecting a cloud solution.
-* '''Compliance and Legal Issues''': Companies must ensure compliance with industry regulations and data governance standards when migrating to the cloud.
+=== Migration Strategies ===
+Organizations looking to migrate to cloud computing can adopt several strategies. The "lift-and-shift" approach involves transferring applications and workloads as they are from on-premises environments to the cloud without re-architecting. This method is often faster and less disruptive but may not leverage the full benefits of cloud-native solutions. Alternatively, businesses may choose to refactor applications to better fit the cloud environment, usually resulting in improved performance and scalability.
+=== DevOps and Cloud Integration ===
+The integration of DevOps practices into cloud deployments can enhance collaboration and streamline the development-to-production pipeline. Continuous integration and continuous deployment (CI/CD) play crucial roles in ensuring that code changes are automatically tested and deployed, facilitating faster releases. Cloud-native tools and services can support these practices, enabling organizations to achieve greater agility in software development.
+=== Security and Compliance Considerations ===
+Security remains a paramount concern in cloud computing. Organizations must consider data privacy, compliance with regulations such as GDPR, and the protection of sensitive information. Cloud providers typically offer various security features, including encryption, identity management, and incident response. Additionally, organizations should implement robust policies and practices to secure their cloud environments, including regular security assessments and training for staff.
+== Applications ==
+The applications of cloud computing are vast and continue to evolve as technology advances. Industries across the spectrum leverage cloud-based solutions to enhance their operations and performance.
+=== Business and Enterprise Applications ===
+Many businesses utilize cloud computing for enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), and human resources management (HRM). By adopting SaaS solutions, organizations can streamline their processes, improve collaboration among teams, and gain access to real-time data analytics. This accessibility facilitates informed decision-making and improves operational efficiency.
+=== Data Storage and Backup ===
+Cloud storage services offer scalable and cost-effective solutions for data storage and backups. Organizations can store vast amounts of data without the need for physical infrastructure, allowing for greater flexibility. In addition, many cloud providers feature backup and disaster recovery solutions that protect data from loss or corruption, ensuring business continuity.
+=== Internet of Things (IoT) ===
+The rise of IoT has been significantly supported by cloud computing capabilities. Cloud platforms provide the necessary infrastructure for processing and storing data generated by IoT devices. This relationship enables organizations to analyze data in real-time and utilize insights for optimizing operations, monitoring systems proactively, and enhancing customer experiences.
 == Real-world Examples ==
-=== Industry Implementations ===
+Several companies have successfully implemented cloud computing strategies, leading to notable transformations in their operations and services.
-Cloud computing has seen widespread adoption across various industries:
-* '''Healthcare''': Institutions leverage cloud technology to store electronic health records (EHR) securely, enabling better patient care and regulatory compliance. Services like AWS HealthLake enable healthcare organizations to aggregate and analyze patient data.
+=== Netflix ===
-* '''Finance''': Financial institutions use cloud computing for risk assessment, transaction processing, and fraud detection, facilitating the integration of machine learning and AI technologies to enhance customer experiences.
-* '''Retail''': Retailers utilize cloud solutions for inventory management, customer relationship management, and e-commerce platforms, allowing them to personalize customer interactions and streamline supply chain processes.
+Netflix, one of the largest streaming services globally, utilizes Amazon Web Services (AWS) to manage its data storage and content delivery. By leveraging cloud resources, Netflix can scale its infrastructure to accommodate fluctuating demands from users during peak viewing times, ensuring smooth service delivery. Furthermore, the cloud enables the company to innovate rapidly, experiment with new features, and enhance user experience.
+=== Airbnb ===
+Airbnb, a leading online marketplace for lodging and travel, employs cloud computing to handle its extensive data needs. The platform operates on AWS to manage user data, screen potential hosts, and provide personalized recommendations for travelers. This utilization of cloud services has enabled Airbnb to grow rapidly, adjust to market changes, and deliver a seamless experience to millions of users worldwide.
+=== Slack ===
-=== Comparative Analysis ===
+Slack, a team collaboration tool, is built on a cloud-based infrastructure, allowing users to communicate and collaborate in real time. It leverages various cloud services for its messaging system, file sharing, and application integrations, providing a cohesive experience for remote teams and enhancing workplace productivity.
-Cloud computing can be compared to traditional computing models across several dimensions:
-* '''Cost''': Cloud computing eliminates the need for heavy upfront investments in IT infrastructure, offering a pay-as-you-go model that can lead to cost savings.
-* '''Scalability''': Cloud solutions provide greater scalability than traditional infrastructure, enabling organizations to adjust resources dynamically based on demand.
-* '''Maintenance''': Cloud providers manage hardware, software updates, and system maintenance, allowing users to focus on their core business functions rather than IT management.
-== Criticism and Controversies ==
+== Criticism and Limitations ==
-=== Privacy and Data Security Concerns ===
+Despite its many advantages, cloud computing is not without its challenges and criticisms.
-As organizations store sensitive data in the cloud, concerns about data privacy and security have emerged. High-profile data breaches have led to heightened scrutiny of cloud security practices. Critics argue that while cloud providers implement sophisticated security protocols, the inherent risks of data exposure remain present.
-=== Service Reliability and Downtime ===
+=== Potential Security Risks ===
-Cloud services are not immune to outages and downtime, leading to potential disruptions in business operations. Critics contend that reliance on third-party service providers introduces risks that may not be present with on-premises solutions. For instance, widespread outages of AWS in 2020 raised concerns about the potential ramifications of cloud dependency.
-=== Ethical and Environmental Issues ===
+The transition to cloud services can lead to concerns about data breaches and unauthorized access. While cloud providers invest heavily in security measures, organizations are ultimately responsible for safeguarding their data. This shared responsibility model can create gaps if not managed adequately.
-The environmental impact of cloud computing has come under scrutiny, as data centers consume significant amounts of energy. Critics argue that the rapid growth of cloud services contributes to increasing carbon footprints and raises questions about ethical and sustainable practices within the tech industry.
-== Influence and Impact ==
+=== Downtime and Reliability Issues ===
-=== Societal Implications ===
+Cloud computing services are not immune to outages. Downtime can result in substantial loss for organizations that rely heavily on cloud infrastructure for their operations. Understanding the terms of service, particularly related to uptime guarantees and service level agreements (SLAs), is critical for businesses before transitioning to the cloud.
-Cloud computing has influenced various societal aspects, including education, workforce dynamics, and public services. Online learning platforms have leveraged cloud technology to provide accessible education resources during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, governments worldwide are adopting cloud strategies to improve citizen services and streamline operations.
-=== Economic Impact ===
+=== Vendor Lock-In ===
-The cloud computing market has experienced explosive growth, contributing significantly to global economies. The adoption of cloud technologies is projected to create millions of jobs related to cloud architecture, development, and management. As businesses innovate and optimize operations via cloud solutions, overall productivity and economic growth are expected to rise.
-=== Future Trends ===
+Dependency on a single cloud provider can lead to vendor lock-in, where organizations face challenges when attempting to migrate to another service or platform. This situation can limit flexibility and increase costs, making it crucial for businesses to evaluate multi-cloud strategies to mitigate such risks.
-The future of cloud computing is poised for ongoing evolution. Emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, edge computing, and quantum computing will likely integrate with cloud frameworks, further enhancing their capabilities. Additionally, the shift toward multi-cloud and hybrid cloud strategies will continue to gain momentum as organizations seek flexibility and resilience.
 == See also ==
-* [[Distributed computing]]
+* [[Grid computing]]
 * [[Virtualization]]
-* [[Grid computing]]
+* [[Software as a Service]]
-* [[Edge computing]]
+* [[Disaster recovery]]
-* [[Internet of Things (IoT)]]
+* [[Big data]]
-* [[Data center]]
+* [[Internet of Things]]
 == References ==
-* [https://www.amazon.com/aws AWS Official Website]
+* [https://aws.amazon.com/ Amazon Web Services]
-* [https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/ Microsoft Azure Official Site]
+* [https://cloud.google.com/ Google Cloud Platform]
-* [https://cloud.google.com/ Google Cloud Platform Official Site]
+* [https://azure.microsoft.com/ Microsoft Azure]
-* [https://www.salesforce.com Salesforce Official Site]
+* [https://www.salesforce.com/ Salesforce]
-* [https://www.ibm.com/cloud IBM Cloud Official Site]
+* [https://www.office.com/ Microsoft Office 365]
-* [https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/cloud/cloud-computing.html Cisco Cloud Computing Overview]
+* [https://workspace.google.com/ Google Workspace]
-* [https://www.nist.gov/itl/applied-cybersecurity/nist-cybersecurity-center-excellence/nist-cloud-computing-program NIST Cloud Computing Program]
+* [https://heroku.com/ Heroku]
+* [https://www.redhat.com/en/openshift Red Hat OpenShift]
 [[Category:Cloud computing]]
-[[Category:Computer science]]
 [[Category:Information technology]]
+[[Category:Internet technologies]]