Network Protocols: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:44, 6 July 2025

Network Protocols is a set of formal rules and conventions that delineate how data is transmitted and received over a network. These protocols govern the interaction between different hardware and software components within a network and ensure effective communication among devices. Network protocols are essential for establishing connectivity, facilitating communication, and ensuring data integrity and security. They are categorized into different types based on their functionalities and the layers of the networking model in which they operate.

Background

The concept of network protocols emerged in the early days of computer networking, amidst the evolution of the Internet. As multiple computers started to connect and share information, it became crucial to develop standardized methods to enable these devices to communicate effectively. The development of protocols can be traced back to the ARPANET project in the late 1960s, which laid the groundwork for the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol), a suite of interconnected protocols that remains integral to modern networking.

The importance of protocols has grown with the expansion of the Internet and the diversification of devices that rely on network connectivity. Today, network protocols encompass a vast array of specifications governing everything from basic communication to advanced security measures, spanning across multiple areas such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and remote communication.

Types of Network Protocols

Network protocols can be broadly categorized based on various criteria, including functionality, architecture, and purpose. The following sections explore key types of network protocols, including communication protocols, security protocols, and transport protocols.

Communication Protocols

Communication protocols serve as the foundation for transmitting data between devices. They define the rules that determine how data is formatted, transmitted, compressed, and error-checked across various types of networks.

The foundational protocols for communication on the Internet are encapsulated in the TCP/IP suite. TCP ensures reliable and ordered delivery of messages, while IP manages the addressing and routing of packets. Together, they form the backbone of Internet communication.

In addition to TCP/IP, several other communication protocols exist, such as the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which enables the transfer of hypertext documents on the World Wide Web, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP), which enables the transfer of files between systems in a network.

Security Protocols

Security protocols are critical for protecting data integrity and privacy in network communications. They provide mechanisms for encrypting data, ensuring secure transmission, and authenticating users.

One of the most widely used security protocols is the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and its successor, Transport Layer Security (TLS). These protocols establish a secure channel between two devices, encrypting data in transit to prevent interception by unauthorized parties.

Another important protocol is the Internet Protocol Security (IPSec), which is used for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications. IPSec operates at the network layer and encrypts data packets between nodes, making it suitable for Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) that route traffic securely over public networks.

Protocol Layers

Networking protocols are often structured in layers, which helps simplify and organize the networking processes. The most widely referenced model is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which delineates seven layers, including the physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application layers.

OSI Model

The OSI model serves as a conceptual framework for understanding how different networking protocols interact. Each layer provides specific functions and communicates with the layers directly above and below it.

The physical layer pertains to the physical medium of transmission, such as cables or wireless signals. The data link layer manages node-to-node communication and error detection, operating with MAC addresses. The network layer is responsible for routing packets between devices, while the transport layer ensures complete data transfer and reliability through mechanisms like segmentation and flow control. The session layer manages connections between applications, the presentation layer formats data for the application layer, and the application layer interacts directly with user applications.

TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model, which underpins the Internet, consists of four layers: the link layer, internet layer, transport layer, and application layer. It is more simplified than the OSI model and is directly aligned with the architecture of the Internet.

In this model, the link layer handles the physical transmission of data, the internet layer manages addressing and routing (primarily through the IP protocol), the transport layer ensures end-to-end communication, and the application layer provides services like HTTP and FTP for user applications. The TCP/IP model's robustness and efficiency have contributed to its widespread adoption, making it integral to the functioning of the Internet.

Implementation of Network Protocols

The implementation of network protocols varies based on the requirements of the environment and the devices involved. Various operating systems, networking equipment, and software use these protocols to establish connectivity and facilitate communication. The following subsections explore how different environments integrate network protocols.

In Operating Systems

Most modern operating systems, including Windows, macOS, Linux, and various Unix-based systems, have built-in support for a wide range of network protocols. This support enables devices running these operating systems to communicate over local and wide-area networks, as well as over the Internet.

Networking stacks within operating systems typically include various layers of the TCP/IP model, with interfaces to applications that rely on networking for communication. For example, applications like web browsers, email clients, and file sharing programs depend on protocols such as HTTP, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP that are implemented within the operating system's networking stack.

In Network Devices

Networking hardware, such as routers, switches, and firewalls, also implement network protocols to facilitate communication. Routers use protocols such as RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) to navigate and direct traffic across interconnected networks.

Switches primarily operate at the data link layer, forwarding packets based on MAC addresses for efficient data handling within local area networks. Firewalls implement security protocols that scrutinize incoming and outgoing network traffic, ensuring compliance with pre-defined security policies.

In Web Applications

Web applications commonly rely on a stack of network protocols to function effectively. On the client side, browsers initiate communication with servers using the HTTP or HTTPS protocol, while on the server side, these requests are processed through server protocols.

For instance, when a user accesses a web application, the browser sends an HTTP request to the server hosting the application. The server processes this request, and responds with the appropriate data formatted in HTML, which is displayed in the browser. This process can involve multiple protocols at various layers, such as DNS (Domain Name System) for resolving domain names into IP addresses and SSL/TLS for secure connections.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite the efficacy of network protocols, several challenges and limitations affect their operation and implementation. The following subsections discuss issues such as interoperability, security vulnerabilities, and scalability.

Interoperability

As the Internet and networking technologies continue to evolve, interoperability among different protocols and devices remains a significant challenge. Many devices use proprietary protocols that may not communicate effectively with standard protocols, leading to compatibility issues.

Efforts to standardize protocols, such as those developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), have aimed to improve interoperability. However, the plethora of devices and applications requires robust solutions that can bridge gaps between diverse standards.

Security Vulnerabilities

While security protocols are designed to protect data and communications, they are not impervious to vulnerabilities. Cybersecurity threats such as man-in-the-middle attacks, packet sniffing, and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks can exploit weaknesses in networking protocols.

Continuous monitoring and updating of security protocols are essential to addressing these vulnerabilities. For instance, over the years, vulnerabilities in SSL and earlier versions of TLS have prompted the development of more secure iterations, including the adoption of TLS 1.2 and 1.3.

Scalability

As networks grow and the number of connected devices increases, scalability becomes increasingly vital. Some protocols may face difficulties handling a large number of simultaneous connections or high data throughput, leading to latency and performance issues.

Protocols like TCP, while adept at ensuring reliable data transfer, may introduce overheads that affect performance in high-traffic environments. In response, alternative protocols such as QUIC, developed by Google, are being explored to provide faster and more efficient data transfer over the Internet, particularly for real-time applications.

Real-world Examples

Numerous real-world applications and systems heavily rely on various network protocols for efficient functioning. Each example reveals the versatility and necessity of these protocols in everyday tech environments.

The Internet

The Internet's vast network of interconnected devices hinged on protocols such as TCP/IP, HTTP, and DNS. Each layer of the TCP/IP model plays a significant role in facilitating communication across diverse networks globally. The sheer scale of the Internet necessitates robust and adaptive protocols to handle complex routing, data integrity, and security.

Corporate Networks

In corporate settings, organizations utilize various network protocols to maintain internal communications and secure transactions. A combination of Ethernet (for local area connections), IP (for data routing), and VPN protocols (for secure remote access) forms the backbone of corporate networking infrastructures.

Moreover, specific industries may employ specialized protocols tailored to their operational requirements. For example, healthcare organizations may utilize HL7 (Health Level Seven) standards for exchanging medical information while ensuring compliance with privacy regulations.

Internet of Things (IoT)

The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) has introduced unique challenges and opportunities for network protocols. With billions of devices connected, protocols designed for low-power, low-bandwidth communication, such as MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), are becoming increasingly prominent. These protocols cater to the specific communication needs of IoT devices, which often operate in constrained environments and demand efficient data transmission.

References

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Network Protocols =
+'''Network Protocols''' is a set of formal rules and conventions that delineate how data is transmitted and received over a network. These protocols govern the interaction between different hardware and software components within a network and ensure effective communication among devices. Network protocols are essential for establishing connectivity, facilitating communication, and ensuring data integrity and security. They are categorized into different types based on their functionalities and the layers of the networking model in which they operate.
-== Introduction ==
+== Background ==
-Network protocols are the established standards that govern the exchange of data between devices over a network. These protocols define rules and conventions for communication, ensuring that devices can understand and process information accurately. Network protocols are crucial for relaying network performance, security, and reliability, and they enable interoperability between diverse systems and platforms. As modern networking continues to evolve, the significance of robust network protocols has come to the forefront, facilitating seamless connectivity in a rapidly digitalizing world.
-== History ==
+The concept of network protocols emerged in the early days of computer networking, amidst the evolution of the Internet. As multiple computers started to connect and share information, it became crucial to develop standardized methods to enable these devices to communicate effectively. The development of protocols can be traced back to the ARPANET project in the late 1960s, which laid the groundwork for the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol), a suite of interconnected protocols that remains integral to modern networking.
-=== Early Developments ===
+The importance of protocols has grown with the expansion of the Internet and the diversification of devices that rely on network connectivity. Today, network protocols encompass a vast array of specifications governing everything from basic communication to advanced security measures, spanning across multiple areas such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and remote communication.
-The genesis of network protocols can be traced back to the early days of computer networking in the 1960s. The dawn of packet-switching technology introduced mechanisms for transferring data across interconnected systems. Early protocols, such as the Interface Message Processor (IMP) protocol developed for ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), laid the groundwork for future standards. The IMP protocol was among the inaugural efforts to allow multiple computers to communicate over a network using a common method of data framing.
-=== The TCP/IP Protocol Suite ===
+== Types of Network Protocols ==
-The major turning point came in 1974 when Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn published a paper detailing the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). This foundational work initiated what would become the TCP/IP protocol suite, establishing a robust framework for future networking. The decision to adopt TCP/IP for ARPANET in 1983 was pivotal, facilitating the birth of the modern Internet. The TCP/IP suite allowed for the segmentation of data into packet formats that could be sent across various network mediums, paving the way for scalability and interoperability.
-=== Expansion and Standardization ===
+Network protocols can be broadly categorized based on various criteria, including functionality, architecture, and purpose. The following sections explore key types of network protocols, including communication protocols, security protocols, and transport protocols.
-As networking technology advanced, several other protocols were developed, particularly during the 1980s and 1990s. Protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) emerged to fulfill specific communication needs. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) also played a significant role in standardizing network protocols, particularly with the IEEE 802 series, which addresses local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs).
-== Design and Architecture ==
+=== Communication Protocols ===
-=== Protocol Layers ===
+Communication protocols serve as the foundation for transmitting data between devices. They define the rules that determine how data is formatted, transmitted, compressed, and error-checked across various types of networks.
-Network protocols are typically organized into layered architectures that facilitate modularity and interoperability. The most widely recognized model is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which consists of seven layers:
-# Layer 7 - Application
+The foundational protocols for communication on the Internet are encapsulated in the TCP/IP suite. TCP ensures reliable and ordered delivery of messages, while IP manages the addressing and routing of packets. Together, they form the backbone of Internet communication.
-# Layer 6 - Presentation
-# Layer 5 - Session
-# Layer 4 - Transport
-# Layer 3 - Network
-# Layer 2 - Data Link
-# Layer 1 - Physical
-Each layer serves a specific function and communicates with the layers directly above and below it. This abstraction allows for independent protocol implementation while ensuring that data can traverse the entire stack.
+In addition to TCP/IP, several other communication protocols exist, such as the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which enables the transfer of hypertext documents on the World Wide Web, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP), which enables the transfer of files between systems in a network.
-=== Common Protocol Types ===
+=== Security Protocols ===
-Network protocols can be categorized based on their functionality:
-* '''Communication Protocols:''' Govern how data is transmitted. Examples include TCP, UDP, and HTTP.
-* '''Routing Protocols:''' Direct traffic among multiple networks. Examples include Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
-* '''Security Protocols:''' Ensure secure communication over the network. Examples include SSL/TLS (Secure Socket Layer/Transport Layer Security) and IPsec (Internet Protocol Security).
-* '''Application Protocols:''' Operate at the application layer and facilitate access to network services. Examples include FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and POP3 (Post Office Protocol).
-=== Addressing and Naming ===
+Security protocols are critical for protecting data integrity and privacy in network communications. They provide mechanisms for encrypting data, ensuring secure transmission, and authenticating users.
-Networking protocols also define systems for addressing, which enables devices to identify each other on a network. The most common addressing scheme is the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and its successor, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv4 employs a 32-bit address space, allowing for around 4.3 billion unique addresses, whereas IPv6 utilizes a 128-bit address space, vastly expanding the number of available addresses.
-== Usage and Implementation ==
+One of the most widely used security protocols is the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and its successor, Transport Layer Security (TLS). These protocols establish a secure channel between two devices, encrypting data in transit to prevent interception by unauthorized parties.
-=== Institutional Use ===
+Another important protocol is the Internet Protocol Security (IPSec), which is used for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications. IPSec operates at the network layer and encrypts data packets between nodes, making it suitable for Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) that route traffic securely over public networks.
-Network protocols are widely implemented in both private and public sector organizations. Businesses use protocols to ensure secure data transactions, facilitate communication among devices, and integrate various applications into a cohesive network. For instance, a corporate network might rely on TCP/IP protocols for data transfer, while employing VPN protocols to secure remote access for employees.
-=== Public and Private Networks ===
+== Protocol Layers ==
-In public networks, such as the Internet, protocols like HTTP and HTTPS are fundamental for web-based communications. Organizations and service providers also adopt quality of service (QoS) protocols to manage bandwidth and improve the performance of high-priority services, such as video conferencing or VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol).
-=== Implementation Frameworks ===
+Networking protocols are often structured in layers, which helps simplify and organize the networking processes. The most widely referenced model is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which delineates seven layers, including the physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application layers.
-The implementation of network protocols often relies on frameworks that allow for the integration of diverse technologies. For instance, the use of software-defined networking (SDN) facilitates the management of networking resources through programmable interfaces, allowing administrators to dictate the behavior of their network protocols dynamically.
-=== Impact of Cloud Computing ===
+=== OSI Model ===
-The rise of cloud computing has further reinforced the importance of network protocols. As data is increasingly stored and processed in the cloud, secure protocols, such as SSL/TLS, play an essential role in safeguarding user data and maintaining privacy. Moreover, cloud services often utilize REST (Representational State Transfer) as an architectural style for web-based communication, relying on HTTP as the underlying protocol.
-== Real-world Examples ==
+The OSI model serves as a conceptual framework for understanding how different networking protocols interact. Each layer provides specific functions and communicates with the layers directly above and below it.
+The physical layer pertains to the physical medium of transmission, such as cables or wireless signals. The data link layer manages node-to-node communication and error detection, operating with MAC addresses. The network layer is responsible for routing packets between devices, while the transport layer ensures complete data transfer and reliability through mechanisms like segmentation and flow control. The session layer manages connections between applications, the presentation layer formats data for the application layer, and the application layer interacts directly with user applications.
+=== TCP/IP Model ===
+The TCP/IP model, which underpins the Internet, consists of four layers: the link layer, internet layer, transport layer, and application layer. It is more simplified than the OSI model and is directly aligned with the architecture of the Internet.
+In this model, the link layer handles the physical transmission of data, the internet layer manages addressing and routing (primarily through the IP protocol), the transport layer ensures end-to-end communication, and the application layer provides services like HTTP and FTP for user applications. The TCP/IP model's robustness and efficiency have contributed to its widespread adoption, making it integral to the functioning of the Internet.
+== Implementation of Network Protocols ==
+The implementation of network protocols varies based on the requirements of the environment and the devices involved. Various operating systems, networking equipment, and software use these protocols to establish connectivity and facilitate communication. The following subsections explore how different environments integrate network protocols.
+=== In Operating Systems ===
+Most modern operating systems, including Windows, macOS, Linux, and various Unix-based systems, have built-in support for a wide range of network protocols. This support enables devices running these operating systems to communicate over local and wide-area networks, as well as over the Internet.
+Networking stacks within operating systems typically include various layers of the TCP/IP model, with interfaces to applications that rely on networking for communication. For example, applications like web browsers, email clients, and file sharing programs depend on protocols such as HTTP, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP that are implemented within the operating system's networking stack.
+=== In Network Devices ===
+Networking hardware, such as routers, switches, and firewalls, also implement network protocols to facilitate communication. Routers use protocols such as RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) to navigate and direct traffic across interconnected networks.
+Switches primarily operate at the data link layer, forwarding packets based on MAC addresses for efficient data handling within local area networks. Firewalls implement security protocols that scrutinize incoming and outgoing network traffic, ensuring compliance with pre-defined security policies.
+=== In Web Applications ===
+Web applications commonly rely on a stack of network protocols to function effectively. On the client side, browsers initiate communication with servers using the HTTP or HTTPS protocol, while on the server side, these requests are processed through server protocols.
+For instance, when a user accesses a web application, the browser sends an HTTP request to the server hosting the application. The server processes this request, and responds with the appropriate data formatted in HTML, which is displayed in the browser. This process can involve multiple protocols at various layers, such as DNS (Domain Name System) for resolving domain names into IP addresses and SSL/TLS for secure connections.
+== Challenges and Limitations ==
-=== Common Network Protocols ===
+Despite the efficacy of network protocols, several challenges and limitations affect their operation and implementation. The following subsections discuss issues such as interoperability, security vulnerabilities, and scalability.
-A selection of some of the most important and commonly used network protocols includes:
-* '''Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):''' A fundamental transport layer protocol that ensures reliable data delivery by establishing a connection-oriented communication channel.
-* '''Internet Protocol (IP):''' The primary layer 3 protocol for routing data packets across networks, facilitating host addressing.
-* '''Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):''' Used for transferring web pages on the Internet, forming the backbone of data communications for the World Wide Web.
-* '''File Transfer Protocol (FTP):''' A standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server on a computer network.
-* '''Post Office Protocol (POP3):''' Utilized by email clients to retrieve emails from a mail server, allowing users to download and manage their email.
-=== Comparison of Protocols ===
+=== Interoperability ===
-Comparisons of different network protocols highlight their respective strengths and ideal applications. For instance, TCP provides reliable delivery but incurs higher overhead, making it less suitable for real-time applications such as video streaming. Conversely, UDP, while less reliable, allows for faster transmission speeds, making it preferable for services where speed is critical, like online gaming.
-== Criticism and Controversies ==
+As the Internet and networking technologies continue to evolve, interoperability among different protocols and devices remains a significant challenge. Many devices use proprietary protocols that may not communicate effectively with standard protocols, leading to compatibility issues.
-=== Fragmentation of Standards ===
+Efforts to standardize protocols, such as those developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), have aimed to improve interoperability. However, the plethora of devices and applications requires robust solutions that can bridge gaps between diverse standards.
-Despite significant progress in the development of network protocols, criticisms revolve around the fragmentation of standards. Various organizations continue to develop proprietary protocols, leading to compatibility issues, increased costs, and challenges in operational consistency across networks. This fragmentation can proliferate inefficiencies, calling into question the ease of interoperability.
 === Security Vulnerabilities ===
-Many network protocols have been subject to criticism regarding security vulnerabilities. Protocols like HTTP are inherently insecure, leading to widespread adoption of HTTPS. However, even HTTPS is not immune to threats, such as man-in-the-middle attacks. Moreover, many legacy protocols remain in use, leaving systems exposed to known vulnerabilities, as seen with the continued reliance on FTP despite its lack of encryption.
-=== Evolving Requirements ===
+While security protocols are designed to protect data and communications, they are not impervious to vulnerabilities. Cybersecurity threats such as man-in-the-middle attacks, packet sniffing, and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks can exploit weaknesses in networking protocols.
-As network demands shift, existing protocols may not fully address emerging needs. The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, for instance, has introduced challenges around scalability, security, and communication protocols tailored for resource-constrained environments. The necessity for innovative protocols to address these unique requirements remains an active area of research and debate.
+Continuous monitoring and updating of security protocols are essential to addressing these vulnerabilities. For instance, over the years, vulnerabilities in SSL and earlier versions of TLS have prompted the development of more secure iterations, including the adoption of TLS 1.2 and 1.3.
+=== Scalability ===
+As networks grow and the number of connected devices increases, scalability becomes increasingly vital. Some protocols may face difficulties handling a large number of simultaneous connections or high data throughput, leading to latency and performance issues.
+Protocols like TCP, while adept at ensuring reliable data transfer, may introduce overheads that affect performance in high-traffic environments. In response, alternative protocols such as QUIC, developed by Google, are being explored to provide faster and more efficient data transfer over the Internet, particularly for real-time applications.
+== Real-world Examples ==
+Numerous real-world applications and systems heavily rely on various network protocols for efficient functioning. Each example reveals the versatility and necessity of these protocols in everyday tech environments.
+=== The Internet ===
-== Influence and Impact ==
+The Internet's vast network of interconnected devices hinged on protocols such as TCP/IP, HTTP, and DNS. Each layer of the TCP/IP model plays a significant role in facilitating communication across diverse networks globally. The sheer scale of the Internet necessitates robust and adaptive protocols to handle complex routing, data integrity, and security.
-=== Internet Growth ===
+=== Corporate Networks ===
-Network protocols have been fundamental to the growth and success of the Internet. The TCP/IP suite provided the framework upon which the Internet was built, allowing diverse systems to interconnect. This architecture has enabled an explosion of online services, e-commerce, social media, and information sharing, continuously reshaping business and social interactions.
-=== Technological Advancements ===
+In corporate settings, organizations utilize various network protocols to maintain internal communications and secure transactions. A combination of Ethernet (for local area connections), IP (for data routing), and VPN protocols (for secure remote access) forms the backbone of corporate networking infrastructures.
-The evolution and standardization of network protocols have driven technological advancements in networking equipment, server architecture, and computing devices. Innovations in Wi-Fi standards (IEEE 802.11 family) illustrate the ongoing development of network protocols, continually enhancing data transmission speeds, range, and security features.
-=== Societal Transformation ===
+Moreover, specific industries may employ specialized protocols tailored to their operational requirements. For example, healthcare organizations may utilize HL7 (Health Level Seven) standards for exchanging medical information while ensuring compliance with privacy regulations.
-The impact of network protocols extends beyond technical specifications; they have transformed societal behaviors and patterns. The ability for global communication, real-time information exchange, and access to vast online resources has influenced how individuals interact, learn, and conduct business, fostering a more interconnected world.
+=== Internet of Things (IoT) ===
+The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) has introduced unique challenges and opportunities for network protocols. With billions of devices connected, protocols designed for low-power, low-bandwidth communication, such as MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), are becoming increasingly prominent. These protocols cater to the specific communication needs of IoT devices, which often operate in constrained environments and demand efficient data transmission.
 == See also ==
-* [[Communication protocols]]
+* [[Internet Protocol]]
 * [[Transmission Control Protocol]]
-* [[Internet Protocol]]
+* [[Open Systems Interconnection]]
-* [[Layered architecture]]
+* [[File Transfer Protocol]]
-* [[Open Systems Interconnection model]]
+* [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]]
-* [[Network security]]
+* [[Virtual Private Network]]
+* [[Security Protocols]]
 == References ==
-* [https://www.ietf.org/ Internet Engineering Task Force]
+* [https://www.ietf.org IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)]
-* [https://www.iana.org/ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]
+* [https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc791.txt RFC 791: Internet Protocol]
-* [https://www.ietf.org/rfc/ RFC Document Archive]
+* [https://www.w3.org/Protocols/ HTTP Protocols at W3C]
-* [https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/Pages/default.aspx International Telecommunication Union]
+* [https://www.ssl.com/what-is-ssl/ What is SSL?]
-* [https://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium]
+* [https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/how-tls-works/ TLS Overview at Cloudflare]
-* [https://www.iana.org/assignments/protocol-numbers/protocol-numbers.xhtml Protocol Number Registry]
 [[Category:Network protocols]]
 [[Category:Computer networking]]
-[[Category:Telecommunications]]
+[[Category:Internet technologies]]